While all Muslims believe that they are on the pathway to God and
hope to become close to God in Paradise—after death and after the "Final
Judgment"—Sufis also believe that it is possible to draw closer to God
and to more fully embrace the
Divine Presence in this life.
[24] The chief aim of all Sufis is to seek the pleasing of God by working to restore within themselves the primordial state of
fitra,
[25] described in the Qur'an. In this state nothing one does defies God, and all is undertaken with the single motivation of
love of God. A secondary consequence of this is that the seeker may be led to abandon all notions of
dualism or multiplicity, including a conception of an individual
self, and to realize the
Divine Unity.
[citation needed]
Thus, Sufism has been characterized
[by whom?]
as the science of the states of the lower self (the ego), and the way
of purifying this lower self of its reprehensible traits, while adorning
it instead with what is praiseworthy, whether or not this process of
cleansing and purifying the heart is in time rewarded by esoteric
knowledge of God. This can be conceived in terms of two basic types of
law (
fiqh), an outer law concerned with actions, and an inner law concerned with the human heart.
[citation needed]
The outer law consists of rules pertaining to worship, transactions,
marriage, judicial rulings, and criminal law—what is often referred to, a
bit too broadly, as
qanun.
The inner law of Sufism consists of rules about repentance from sin,
the purging of contemptible qualities and evil traits of character, and
adornment with virtues and good character.
[26]
Sufism, which is a general term for Muslim mysticism, was originally a
response to the increasing worldly power of Islamic leaders as the
religion spread during the 8th Century and their corresponding shift in
focus towards materialistic and political concerns.
[citation needed] In particular,
Harun al-Rashid, the fifth
Abbasid Caliph,
attracted negative attention for his lavish lifestyle, including gold
and silver tableware, an extensive harem and numerous slaves and
retainers, that stood in contrast to the relative simplicity of
Muhammad's life.
[citation needed]
The typical early Sufi lived in a cell of a mosque and taught a small
band of disciples. The extent to which Sufism was influenced by
Buddhist and Hindu mysticism, and by the example of Christian hermits
and monks, is disputed, but self-discipline and concentration on God
quickly led to the belief that by quelling the self and through loving
ardour for God it is possible to maintain a union with the divine in
which the human self melts away.
[27]
Teaching
To enter the way of Sufism, the seeker begins by finding a teacher,
as the connection to the teacher is considered necessary for the growth
of the pupil. The teacher, to be considered genuine, must have received
the authorization to teach (
ijazah) from another Master of the Way, in an unbroken succession (
silsilah) leading back to Muhammad.
[dubious – discuss][citation needed]
It is the transmission of the divine light from the teacher's heart to
the heart of the student, rather than of worldly knowledge transmitted
from mouth to ear, that allows the adept to progress. In addition, the
genuine teacher will be utterly strict in his adherence to the Divine
Law.
[28]
According to
Moojan Momen "one of the most important doctrines of Sufism is the concept of the "Perfect Man" (
al-Insan al-Kamil). This doctrine states that there will always exist upon the earth a "
Qutb" (Pole or Axis, of the Universe)—a man who is the perfect channel of grace from God to man and in a state of
wilaya (sanctity, being under the protection of God). The concept of the Sufi Qutb is similar to that of the
Shi'i Imam.
[29]
However, this belief puts Sufism in "direct conflict" with Shi'ism,
since both the Qutb (who for most Sufi orders is the head of the order)
and the Imam fulfill the role of "the purveyor of spiritual guidance and
of God's grace to mankind". The vow of obedience to the Shaykh or Qutb
which is taken by Sufis is considered incompatible with devotion to the
Imam".
[29]
As a further example, the prospective adherent of the
Mevlevi
Order would have been ordered to serve in the kitchens of a hospice for
the poor for 1,001 days prior to being accepted for spiritual
instruction, and a further 1,001 days in solitary retreat as a
precondition of completing that instruction.
[30]
Some teachers, especially when addressing more general audiences, or
mixed groups of Muslims and non-Muslims, make extensive use of
parable,
allegory, and
metaphor.
[31]
Although approaches to teaching vary among different Sufi orders,
Sufism as a whole is primarily concerned with direct personal
experience, and as such has sometimes been compared to other,
non-Islamic forms of
mysticism (e.g., as in the books of
Hossein Nasr).
Scholars and adherents of Sufism are unanimous in agreeing that Sufism cannot be learned through books.
[dubious – discuss]
To reach the highest levels of success in Sufism typically requires
that the disciple live with and serve the teacher for many, many years.
[citation needed] For instance,
Baha-ud-Din Naqshband Bukhari, who gave his name to the
Naqshbandi
Order, served his first teacher, Sayyid Muhammad Baba As-Samasi, for 20
years, until as-Samasi died. He subsequently served several other
teachers for lengthy periods of time. The extreme arduousness of his
spiritual preparation is illustrated by his service, as directed by his
teacher, to the weak and needy members of his community in a state of
complete humility and tolerance for many years. When he believed this
mission to be concluded, his teacher next directed him to care for
animals, curing their sicknesses, cleaning their wounds, and assisting
them in finding provision. After many years of this he was next
instructed to spend many years in the care of dogs in a state of
humility, and to ask them for support.
[32]
History of Sufism
Origins
Practitioners of Sufism hold that in its early stages of development
Sufism effectively referred to nothing more than the internalization of
Islam.
[33]
According to one perspective, it is directly from the Qur'an,
constantly recited, meditated, and experienced, that Sufism proceeded,
in its origin and its development.
[34] Others have held that Sufism is the strict emulation of the way of
Muhammad, through which the heart's connection to the Divine is strengthened.
[35]
More prosaically, the
Muslim Conquests
had brought large numbers of Christian monks and hermits, especially in
Syria and Egypt, under the rule of Muslims. They retained a vigorous
spiritual life for centuries after the conquests, and many of the
especially pious Muslims who founded Sufism were influenced by their
techniques and methods.
[36] According to late Medieval mystic
Jami,
Abd-Allah ibn Muhammad ibn al-Hanafiyyah was the first person to be called a "Sufi."
[20]
Important contributions in writing are attributed to
Uwais al-Qarni, Harrm bin Hian,
Hasan Basri and Sayid ibn al-Mussib.
Ruwaym, from the second generation of Sufis in Baghdad, was also an influential early figure,
[37][38] as was
Junayd of Baghdad; a number of early practitioners of Sufism were disciples of one of the two.
[39]
Sufism had a long history already before the subsequent institutionalization of Sufi teachings into devotional orders (
tarîqât) in the early Middle Ages.
[40] The
Naqshbandi
order is a notable exception to general rule of orders tracing their
spiritual lineage through Muhammad's grandsons, as it traces the origin
of its teachings from Muhammad to the first Islamic Caliph,
Abu Bakr.
[5]
Formalization of doctrine
Towards the end of the first millennium CE, a number of manuals began
to be written summarizing the doctrines of Sufism and describing some
typical Sufi practices. Two of the most famous of these are now
available in English translation: the
Kashf al-Mahjûb of
Hujwiri, and the
Risâla of
Qushayri.
[41]
Two of Imam
Al Ghazali's
greatest treatises, the "Revival of Religious Sciences" and the
"Alchemy of Happiness", argued that Sufism originated from the Qur'an
and was thus compatible with mainstream Islamic thought, and did not in
any way contradict Islamic Law—being instead necessary to its complete
fulfillment. This became the mainstream position among Islamic scholars
for centuries, challenged only recently on the basis of selective use of
a limited body of texts.
[example needed]
Ongoing efforts by both traditionally trained Muslim scholars and
Western academics are making Imam Al-Ghazali's works available in
English translation for the first time,
[42] allowing English-speaking readers to judge for themselves the compatibility of Islamic Law and Sufi doctrine.
Growth of influence
The rise of Islamic civilization coincides strongly with the spread
of Sufi philosophy in Islam. The spread of Sufism has been considered a
definitive factor in the spread of Islam, and in the creation of
integrally Islamic cultures, especially in Africa
[43] and Asia. The
Senussi tribes of Libya and Sudan are one of the strongest adherents of Sufism. Sufi poets and philosophers such as
Rumi and
Attar of Nishapur greatly enhanced the spread of Islamic culture in Anatolia, Central Asia, and South Asia.
[44][45] Sufism also played a role in creating and propagating the culture of the
Ottoman world,
[46] and in resisting European imperialism in North Africa and South Asia.
[47]
Between the 13th and 16th centuries CE, Sufism produced a flourishing
intellectual culture throughout the Islamic world, a "Golden Age" whose
physical artifacts are still present. In many places, a lodge (known
variously as a
zaouia,
khanqah, or
tekke) would be endowed through a pious foundation in perpetuity (
waqf)
to provide a gathering place for Sufi adepts, as well as lodging for
itinerant seekers of knowledge. The same system of endowments could also
be used to pay for a complex of buildings, such as that surrounding the
Süleymaniye Mosque in Istanbul, including a lodge for Sufi seekers, a
hospice
with kitchens where these seekers could serve the poor and/or complete a
period of initiation, a library, and other structures. No important
domain in the civilization of Islam remained unaffected by Sufism in
this period.
[48]
Contemporary Sufism
Current Sufi orders include
Alians,
Bektashi Order,
Druze,
Mevlevi Order,
Ba 'Alawiyya,
Chishti,
Jerrahi,
Naqshbandi,
Nimatullahi,
Qadiriyyah,
Qalandariyya,
Sarwari Qadiri,
Shadhiliyya,
Suhrawardiyya,
Ashrafia and
Uwaisi (Oveyssi).
[6] The relationship of Sufi orders to modern societies is usually defined by their relationship to governments.
[49]
Turkey and Persia together have been a center for many Sufi lineages and orders. The Bektashi was closely affiliated with the
Ottoman Janissary and is the heart of Turkeys large and mostly liberal
Alevi
population. It has been spread westwards to Cyprus, Greece, Albania,
Bulgaria, Macedonia, Bosnia, Kosovo and more recently to the USA (via
Albania). Most Sufi Orders have influences from pre-Islamic traditions
such as
Pythagoreanism, but the
Turkic Sufi traditions (including Alians, Bektashi and Mevlevi) also have traces of the ancient
Tengrism shamanism.
Sufism is popular in such African countries as
Morocco and
Senegal, where it is seen as a mystical expression of Islam.
[50]
Sufism is traditional in Morocco but has seen a growing revival with
the renewal of Sufism around contemporary spiritual teachers such as
Sidi Hamza al Qadiri al Boutshishi. Mbacke suggests that one reason
Sufism has taken hold in Senegal is because it can accommodate local
beliefs and customs, which tend toward the
mystical.
[51]
The life of the Algerian Sufi master Emir
Abd al-Qadir is instructive in this regard.
[52] Notable as well are the lives of
Amadou Bamba and Hajj
Umar Tall in sub-Saharan Africa, and
Sheikh Mansur Ushurma and
Imam Shamil
in the Caucasus region. In the twentieth century some more modernist
Muslims have called Sufism a superstitious religion that holds back
Islamic achievement in the fields of science and technology.
[53]
A number of Westerners have embarked with varying degrees of success
on the path of Sufism. One of the first to return to Europe as an
official representative of a Sufi order, and with the specific purpose
to spread Sufism in Western Europe, was the
Swedish-born wandering Sufi
Abd al-Hadi Aqhili (also known as Ivan Aguéli).
René Guénon,
the French scholar, became a Sufi in the early twentieth century and
was known as Sheikh Abdul Wahid Yahya. His manifold writings defined the
practice of Sufism as the essence of Islam but also pointed to the
universality of its message. Other spiritualists, such as
G. I. Gurdjieff, may or may not conform to the tenets of Sufism as understood by orthodox Muslims.
Other noteworthy Sufi teachers who have been active in the West in recent years include
Bawa Muhaiyaddeen,
Inayat Khan,
Nazim Al-Haqqani,
Javad Nurbakhsh,
Bulent Rauf,
Irina Tweedie,
Idries Shah and
Muzaffer Ozak.
Currently active Sufi academics and publishers include
Llewellyn Vaughan-Lee,
Nuh Ha Mim Keller,
Abdullah Nooruddeen Durkee,
Waheed Ashraf and
Abdal Hakim Murad.
Theoretical perspectives in Sufism
The works of
Al-Ghazali firmly defended the concepts of Sufism within the
Islamic faith.
Traditional Islamic scholars have recognized two major branches
within the practice of Sufism, and use this as one key to
differentiating among the approaches of different masters and devotional
lineages.
[54]
On the one hand there is the order from the signs to the Signifier
(or from the arts to the Artisan). In this branch, the seeker begins by
purifying the lower self of every corrupting influence that stands in
the way of recognizing all of creation as the work of God, as God's
active Self-disclosure or theophany.
[55] This is the way of Imam
Al-Ghazali and of the majority of the Sufi orders.
On the other hand there is the order from the Signifier to His signs,
from the Artisan to His works. In this branch the seeker experiences
divine attraction (
jadhba),
and is able to enter the order with a glimpse of its endpoint, of
direct apprehension of the Divine Presence towards which all spiritual
striving is directed. This does not replace the striving to purify the
heart, as in the other branch; it simply stems from a different point of
entry into the path. This is the way primarily of the masters of the
Naqshbandi and
Shadhili orders.
[56]
Contemporary scholars may also recognize a third branch, attributed to the late
Ottoman scholar
Said Nursi and explicated in his vast Qur'an commentary called the
Risale-i Nur. This approach entails strict adherence to the way of Muhammad, in the understanding that this wont, or
sunnah, proposes a complete devotional spirituality adequate to those without access to a master of the Sufi way.
[57]
Contributions to other domains of scholarship
Sufism has contributed significantly to the elaboration of
theoretical perspectives in many domains of intellectual endeavor. For
instance, the doctrine of "subtle centers" or centers of subtle
cognition (known as
Lataif-e-sitta) addresses the matter of the awakening of spiritual intuition
[58] in ways that some consider similar to certain models of
chakra in Hinduism. In general, these subtle centers or
latâ'if
are thought of as faculties that are to be purified sequentially in
order to bring the seeker's wayfaring to completion. A concise and
useful summary of this system from a living exponent of this tradition
has been published by
Muhammad Emin Er.
[54]
Sufi psychology has influenced many areas of thinking both within and outside of Islam, drawing primarily upon three concepts.
Ja'far al-Sadiq (both an
imam in the
Shia
tradition and a respected scholar and link in chains of Sufi
transmission in all Islamic sects) held that human beings are dominated
by a lower self called the
nafs, a faculty of spiritual intuition called the
qalb or spiritual heart, and a spirit or soul called
ruh. These interact in various ways, producing the spiritual types of the tyrant (dominated by
nafs), the person of faith and moderation (dominated by the spiritual heart), and the person lost in love for God (dominated by the
ruh).
[59]
Of note with regard to the spread of Sufi psychology in the West is
Robert Frager, a Sufi teacher authorized in the
Khalwati Jerrahi
order. Frager was a trained psychologist, born in the United States,
who converted to Islam in the course of his practice of Sufism and wrote
extensively on Sufism and psychology.
[60]
Sufi cosmology and
Sufi metaphysics are also noteworthy areas of intellectual accomplishment.
Sufi practices
Sufi gathering engaged in Dhikr
The devotional practices of Sufis vary widely. This is because an
acknowledged and authorized master of the Sufi path is in effect a
physician of the heart, able to diagnose the seeker's impediments to
knowledge and pure intention in serving God, and to prescribe to the
seeker a course of treatment appropriate to his or her maladies. The
consensus among Sufi scholars is that the seeker cannot self-diagnose,
and that it can be extremely harmful to undertake any of these practices
alone and without formal authorization.
[61]
Prerequisites to practice include rigorous adherence to Islamic norms
(ritual prayer in its five prescribed times each day, the fast of
Ramadan, and so forth). Additionally, the seeker ought to be firmly
grounded in supererogatory practices known from the life of Muhammad
(such as the "sunna prayers"). This is in accordance with the words,
attributed to God, of the following, a famous
Hadith Qudsi:
My servant draws near to Me through nothing I love more than that
which I have made obligatory for him. My servant never ceases drawing
near to Me through supererogatory works until I love him. Then, when I
love him, I am his hearing through which he hears, his sight through
which he sees, his hand through which he grasps, and his foot through
which he walks.
It is also necessary for the seeker to have a correct creed (
Aqidah),
[62] and to embrace with certainty its tenets.
[63]
The seeker must also, of necessity, turn away from sins, love of this
world, the love of company and renown, obedience to satanic impulse, and
the promptings of the lower self. (The way in which this purification
of the heart is achieved is outlined in certain books, but must be
prescribed in detail by a Sufi master.) The seeker must also be trained
to prevent the corruption of those good deeds which have accrued to his
or her credit by overcoming the traps of ostentation, pride, arrogance,
envy, and long hopes (meaning the hope for a long life allowing us to
mend our ways later, rather than immediately, here and now).
Sufi practices, while attractive to some, are not a
means for
gaining knowledge. The traditional scholars of Sufism hold it as
absolutely axiomatic that knowledge of God is not a psychological state
generated through breath control. Thus, practice of "techniques" is not
the cause, but instead the
occasion for such knowledge to be
obtained (if at all), given proper prerequisites and proper guidance by a
master of the way. Furthermore, the emphasis on practices may obscure a
far more important fact: The seeker is, in a sense, to become a broken
person, stripped of all habits through the practice of (in the words of
Imam
Al-Ghazali) solitude, silence, sleeplessness, and hunger.
[64]
Magic has also been a part of Sufi practice, notably in India.
[65]
This practice intensified during the declining years of Sufism in India
when the Sufi orders grew steadily in wealth and in political influence
while their spirituality gradually declined as they concentrated on
Saint worship, miracle working, magic and superstition. The external
religious practices were neglected, morals declined and learning was
despised. The element of magic in Sufism in India possibly drew from the
occult practices in the
Atharvaveda. The most famous of all Sufis,
Mansur Al-Hallaj (d. 922), visited Sindh in order to study "Indian Magic". He not only accepted Hindu ideas of
cosmogony and of divine descent but he also seems to have believed in the
Transmigration of the soul.
[66]
Dhikr
Allah as having been written on the disciple's heart according to Qadiri Al-Muntahi order
Dhikr is the remembrance of God commanded in the
Qur'an for all
Muslims through a specific devotional act, such as the repetition of divine names, supplications and aphorisms from
hadith literature and the Qur'an. More generally, dhikr takes a wide range and various layers of meaning.
[67]
This includes dhikr as any activity in which the Muslim maintains
awareness of God. To engage in dhikr is to practice consciousness of the
Divine Presence and
love,
or "to seek a state of godwariness". The Qur'an refers to Muhammad as
the very embodiment of dhikr of God (65:10-11). Some types of dhikr are
prescribed for all Muslims and do not require Sufi initiation or the
prescription of a Sufi master because they are deemed to be good for
every seeker under every circumstance.
[68]
Some Sufi orders
[69] engage in ritualized dhikr ceremonies, or
sema. Sema includes various forms of worship such as:
recitation,
singing (the most well known being the
Qawwali music of the Indian subcontinent),
instrumental music,
dance (most famously the
Sufi whirling of the
Mevlevi order),
incense,
meditation,
ecstasy, and
trance.
[70]
Some Sufi orders stress and place extensive reliance upon Dhikr. This practice of Dhikr is called
Dhikr-e-Qulb
(remembrance of Allah by Heartbeats). The basic idea in this practice
is to visualize the Arabic name of God, Allah, as having been written on
the disciple's heart.
[71]
Muraqaba
The practice of
muraqaba can be likened to the practices of
meditation attested in many faith communities. The word
muraqaba is derived from the same root (
r-q-b) occurring as one of the 99
Names of God in the Qur'an, al-Raqîb, meaning "the Vigilant" and attested in verse 4: 1 of the
Qur'an. Through
muraqaba,
a person watches over or takes care of the spiritual heart, acquires
knowledge about it, and becomes attuned to the Divine Presence, which is
ever vigilant.
While variation exists, one description of the practice within a Naqshbandi lineage reads as follows:
He is to collect all of his bodily senses in concentration, and to
cut himself off from all preoccupation and notions that inflict
themselves upon the heart. And thus he is to turn his full consciousness
towards God Most High while saying three times: "Ilahî anta maqsûdî wa-ridâka matlûbî—my
God, you are my Goal and Your good pleasure is what I seek". Then he
brings to his heart the Name of the Essence—Allâh—and as it courses
through his heart he remains attentive to its meaning, which is "Essence
without likeness". The seeker remains aware that He is Present,
Watchful, Encompassing of all, thereby exemplifying the meaning of his
saying (may God bless him and grant him peace): "Worship God as though
you see Him, for if you do not see Him, He sees you". And likewise the
prophetic tradition: "The most favored level of faith is to know that
God is witness over you, wherever you may be".[72]
Visitation
In popular Sufism (i.e., devotional practices that have achieved
currency in world cultures through Sufi influence), one common practice
is to visit or make pilgrimages to the tombs of saints, great scholars,
and righteous people. This is a particularly common practice in South
Asia, where famous tombs include those of Khoja Afāq, near
Kashgar, in China;
Lal Shahbaz Qalander, in
Sindh,Ali Hajwari in Lahore Bawaldin Zikrya in Multan Pakistan;
Moinuddin Chishti in
Ajmer, India;
Nizamuddin Auliya in
Delhi, India, and
Shah Jalal in
Sylhet, Bangladesh. Likewise, in
Fez, Morocco, a popular destination for such pious visitation is the
Zaouia Moulay Idriss II and the yearly visitation to see the current Sheikh of the Qadiri Boutchichi
Tariqah, Sheikh Sidi Hamza al Qadiri al Boutchichi to celebrate the
Mawlid (which is usually televised on Moroccan National television).
Persecution
Sufis and Sufism has been subject to destruction of Sufi shrines and
mosques, suppression of orders and discrimination against adherents in a
number of Muslim countries where most Sufis live. The Turkish
Republican state banned all the different Sufi orders and closed their
institutions in 1925 after Sufis opposed the new secular order. The
Iranian Islamic Republic has harassed Shia Sufi, reportedly for their
lack of support for the government doctrine of "
velayat-e faqih" (i.e. that the supreme
Shiite
jurist should be the nation's political leader). In most other Muslim
countries, attacks on Sufis and especially their shrines has come from
some Muslims from the more puritanical schools of thought who believe
Sufi practices such as
celebration of the birthdays of Sufi saints, and
Dhikr ("remembrance" of God) ceremonies
[73] are
Bid‘ah or impure innovation, and polytheistic (
Shirk).
[74][75]
History
During the
Safavid era of
Iran,
"both the wandering dervishes of 'low' Sufism" and "the
philosopher-ulama of 'high' Sufism came under relentless pressure" from
power cleric
Muhammad Baqir Majlisi (d1110/1699). Majlisi—"one of the most powerful and influential"
Twelver Shi'a ulama
"of all time"—was famous (for among other things), suppression of
Sufism, which he and his followers believed paid insufficient attention
to Shariah law. Prior to Majlisi's rise, Shiism and Sufism had been
"closely linked".
[76]
In 1843 the
Senussi Sufi were forced to flee
Mecca and
Medina and head to
Sudan and
Libya.
[15][77]
Before the
First World War there were almost 100,000 disciples of the
Mevlevi order throughout the
Ottoman empire. But in 1925, as part of his desire to create a modern, western-orientated, secular state,
Atatürk banned all the different Sufi orders and closed their
tekkes.
Pious foundations were suspended and their endowments expropriated;
Sufi hospices were closed and their contents seized; all religious
titles were abolished and
dervish clothes outlawed. ... In 1937,
Atatürk went even further, prohibiting by law any form of traditional music, especially the playing of the ney, the Sufis' reed flute.
[78][79]
Current attacks
In recent years, Sufi shrines, and sometimes Sufi mosques, have been
damaged or destroyed in many parts of the Muslim world. Some Sufi
adherents have been killed as well.
Ali Gomaa, a Sufi scholar and Grand Mufti of
Al Azhar, has criticized the destruction of shrines and public property as unacceptable.
[80]
Pakistan
Since March 2005, 209 people have been killed and 560 injured in 29
different terrorist attacks targeting shrines devoted to Sufi saints in
Pakistan, according to data compiled by the Center for Islamic Research
Collaboration and Learning (CIRCLe).
[81]
At least as of 2010, the attacks have increased each year. The attacks
are generally attributed to banned militant organizations of
Deobandi or
Ahl-e-Hadith (Salafi) backgrounds.
[82] (Primarily Deobandi background according to another source—author John R. Schmidt).
[83] Deobandi and
Barelvi being the "two major sub-sects" of Sunni Muslims in South Asia
[84] that have clashed—sometimes violently—since the late 1970s in Pakistan.
[84] Although Barelvi are sometimes described as Sunni Sufis,
[85] whether the destruction and death is a result of Deobandi's persecution of Sufis is disputed.
[86])
In 2005, the militant organizations began attacking "symbols" of the
Barelvi community such as mosques, prominent religious leaders, and
shrines.
[82]
Timeline
- 2005
- 19 March: a suicide bomber kills at least 35 people and injured many
more at the shrine of Pir Rakhel Shah in remote village of Fatehpur
located in Jhal Magsi District of Balochistan. The dead included Shia and sunni devotees.[87]
- 27 May: As many as 20 people are killed and 100 injured when a
suicide-bomber attacks a gathering at Bari Imam Shrine during the annual
festival. The dead were mainly Shia.[88] According to the police members of Sipah-i-Sahaba Pakistan (SSP) and Lashkar-i-Jhangvi (LJ) were involved.[89] Sipah-e-Sahaba Pakistan (SSP), were arrested from Thanda Pani and police seized two hand grenades from their custody.[90][91]
- 2006
- 11 April: A suicide-bomber attacked a celebration of the birthday of the Prophet Muhammad (Eid Mawlid un Nabi) in Karachi's Nishtar Park organised by the Barelvi Jamaat Ahle Sunnat. 57 died including almost the entire leadership of the Sunni Tehrik; over 100 were injured.[92] Three people associated with Lashkar-i-Jhangvi were put on trial for the bombing.[93] (see: Nishtar Park bombing)
- 2007
- 18 December: The shrine of Abdul Shakoor Malang Baba is demolished by explosives.[94]
- 2008
- March 3: ten villagers killed in a rocket attack on the 400-year-old shrine of Abu Saeed Baba. Lashkar-e-Islam takes credit.[94]
- 2009
- 17 February: Agha Jee shot and killed in Peshwar, the fourth faith
healer killed over several months in Pakistan. Earlier Pir Samiullah was
killed in Swat by the Taliban 16 December 2008. His dead body was later
exhumed and desecrated. Pir Rafiullah was kidnapped from Nowshera and
his beheaded body was found in Matani area of Peshawar. Pir Juma Khan
was kidnapped from Dir Lower and his beheaded body was found near Swat.[95] Faith healing is associated with Sufi Islam in Pakistan
Pakistani faith healers are known as pirs, a term that applies to the
descendants of Sufi Muslim saints. Under Sufism, those descendants are
thought to serve as conduits to God. The popularity of pirs as a viable
healthcare alternative stems from the fact that, in much of rural
Pakistan, clinics don't exist or are dismissed as unreliable.[96]
- and suppressing it has been a cause of "extremist" Muslims there.[97]
- March 5: The shrine of Rahman Baba, "the most famous Sufi Pashto
language poet", razed to the ground by Taliban militants "partly because
local women had been visiting the shrine".[94][98]
- 8 March: Attack on shrine of "famous Sufi poet" Rahman Baba
in Peshawar. "The high intensity device almost destroyed the grave of
the Rehman Baba and the gates of a mosque, canteen and conference hall
situated in the spacious Rehman Baba Complex. Police said the bombers
had tied explosives around the pillars of the tombs, to pull down the
mausoleum".[99]
- May 8: shrine of Shaykh Omar Baba destroyed.[94][100]
- 12 June: Mufti Sarfraz Ahmed Naeemi killed by suicide bomber in
Lahore. A leading Sunni Islamic cleric in Pakistan he was well known for
his moderate views and for publicly denouncing the Taliban’s beheadings
and suicide bombings as "un-Islamic".[101]
- 2010
- 22 June: Taliban militants blow up the Mian Umar Baba shrine in Peshawar. No fatalities reported.[94][102]
- 1 July: Multiple bombings of Data Durbar Complex Sufi shrine, in
Lahore, Punjab. Two suicide bombers blew themselves up killing at least
50 people and injuring 200 others.[94]
- 7 October: 10 people killed, 50 injured in a double suicide bombing attack on Abdullah Shah Ghazi shrine in Karachi[103]
- 7 October: The tomb of Baba Fariddudin Ganj Shakkar in Pakpattan is attacked. Six people were killed and 15 others injured.[94]
- 25 October: 6 killed, and at least 12 wounded in an attack on the
shrine of 12th-century saint, Baba Farid Ganj Shakar in Pakpattan.[104]
- 14 December: Attack on Ghazi Baba shrine in Peshawar, 3 killed.[105]
- 2011
- 3 February: Remote-controlled device is triggered as food is being
distributed among the devotees outside the Baba Haider Saieen shrine in
Lahore, Punjab. At least three people were killed and 27 others injured.[94]
- 3 April: Twin suicide attack leaves 42 dead and almost a hundred
injured during the annual Urs festival at shrine of 13th century Sufi
saint Sakhi Sarwar (a.k.a. Ahmed Sultan) in the Dera Ghazi Khan district
of Punjab province. Tehrik-e-Taliban Pakistan (TTP) claims
responsibility for the attack.[94][106]
- 2012
- 21 June: Bomb kills three people and injures 31 others at the Pinza Piran shrine in Hazarkhwani in (Peshwar).
"A police official said the bomb was planted in a donkey-cart that went
off in the afternoon when a large number of people were visiting the
popular shrine".[107]
Kashmir
In this predominately Muslim, traditionally Sufi region,
[108]
some six places of worship have been either completely or partially
burnt in "mysterious fires" in several months leading up to November
2012.
[109] The most prominent victim of damage was the Dastageer Sahib Sufi shrine in
Srinagar which burned in June 2012, injuring 20.
[110]
While investigators have so far found no sign of arson, according to
journalist Amir Rana the fires have occurred within the context of a
surging Salafi movement which preaches that "Kashmiri tradition of
venerating the tombs and relics of saints is outside the pale of Islam".
[109]
mourners outside the burning shrine cursed the Salafis
for creating an atmosphere of hate, [while] some Salafis began posting
incendiary messages on Facebook, terming the destruction of the shrine a
"divine act of God".[109]
Somalia
Under the Al-Shabab rule in Somali, Sufi ceremonies were banned
[111] and shrines
destroyed.
[112] As the power of Al-Shabab has waned, however, Sufi ceremonies are said to have "re-emerged".
[108]
Mali
In the ancient city of Timbuktu, sometimes called "the city of 333 saints",
UNESCO
reports that as many as half of the city’s shrines "have been destroyed
in a display of fanaticism", as of July 2012. A spokesman for
Ansar Dine
has stated that "the destruction is a divine order", and that the group
had plans to destroy every single Sufi shrine in the city, "without
exception".
[113] In
Gao and
Kidal, as well as Timbuktu, Salafi Islamists have destroyed musical instruments and driven musicians (
music is not
Haraam under Sufi Islam) into "economic exile" away from Mali.
[114]
International Criminal Court Chief Prosecutor Fatou Bensouda described the Islamists’ actions as a "war crime".
[115][116]
Egypt
A May 2010 ban by the ministry of awqaf (religious endowments) of centuries old Sufi
dhikr
gatherings (devoted to the remembrance of God, and including dancing
and religious songs) has been described as a "another victory for
extreme Salafi thinking at the expense of Egypt's moderate Sufism".
Clashes followed at
Cairo's
Al-Hussein Mosque and al-Sayyida Zeinab mosques between members of Sufi orders and security forces who forced them to evacuate the two shrines.
[73]
In 2009 the moulid of al-Sayyida Zeinab, the prophet's Muhammad's
granddaughter, was banned ostensibly over concern over the spread of
swine flu
[117] but also at the urging of Salafis.
[73]
According to Gaber Qassem, deputy of the Sufi Orders, approximately
14 shrines have been violated in Egypt since the January 2011
revolution. According to Sheikh Tarek El-Rifai, head of the Rifai Sufi
Order, a number of Salafis have prevented Sufi prayers in Al-Haram.
Sheikh Rifai said that the order's lawyer has filed a report at the
Al-Haram police station to that effect. In early April 2011, a Sufi
march from Al-Azhar Mosque to Al-Hussein Mosque was followed by a
massive protest before Al-Hussein Mosque, "expressing outrage at the
destruction" of Sufi shrines. The Islamic Research Centre of Egypt, led
by Grand Imam of Al-Azhar Ahmed El-Tayeb, has also renounced the attacks
on the shrines.
[75]
According to the Muslim Brotherhood website ikhwanweb.com, in 2011 "a
memorandum was submitted to the Armed Forces" citing 20 "encroachments"
on Sufi shrines.
[80]
Libya
Following the overthrow of
Muammar Gaddafi, several Sufi religious sites in Libya were deliberately destroyed or damaged.
[118]
In the weeks leading up to September 2012, "armed groups motivated by
their religious views" attacked Sufi religious sites across the country,
"destroying several mosques and tombs of Sufi religious leaders and
scholars".
[119]
Perpetrators were described as “groups that have a strict Islamic
ideology where they believe that graves and shrines must be desecrated.”
Libyan Interior Minister Fawzi Abdel A’al, was quoted as saying, “If
all shrines in Libya are destroyed so we can avoid the death of one
person [in clashes with security forces], then that is a price we are
ready to pay,”
[119]
In September 2012, three people were killed in clashes between
residents of Rajma (50 km south-east of Benghazi) and "Salafist
Islamists" trying to destroy a Sufi shrine in Rajma, the Sidi al-Lafi
mausoleum.
[120] In August 2012 the United Nations cultural agency
Unesco
urged Libyan authorities to protect Sufi mosques and shrines from
attacks by Islamic hardliners "who consider the traditional mystical
school of Islam heretical". The attacked have "wrecked mosques in at
least three cities and desecrated many graves of revered Sufi scholars".
[121]
Tunisia
In an article on the rise of Salafism in Tunisia, the media site
Al-Monitor reported that 39 Sufi shrines were destroyed or desecrated in Tunisia, from the 2011 revolution to January 2013.
[122]
Russia, Dagestan
Said Atsayev—also known as Sheikh Said Afandi al-Chirkavi—a prominent
74-year-old Sufi Muslim spiritual leader in Dagestan Russia, was killed
by a suicide bombing August 28, 2012 along with six of his followers.
His murder follows "similar religiously-motivated killings" in Dagestan
and other regions of ex-Soviet Central Asia, targeting religious
leaders—not necessarily Sufi—who are hostile to violent jihad. Afandi
had survived previous attempts on his life and was reportedly in the
process of negotiating a peace agreement between the Sufis and Salafis.
[123] [124][125]
Iran
According to
Seyed Mostafa Azmayesh,
an expert on Sufism and the representative of the Ni'matullāhī order
outside Iran, a campaign against the Sufis in Iran (or at least Shia
Sufis) began in 2005 when several books were published arguing that
because Sufis follow their own spiritual leaders do not believe in the
Islamic state's principle of "
velayat-e faqih" (i.e. that the supreme
Shiite
jurist should be the nation's political leader), Sufis should be
treated as second-class citizens. They should not be allowed to have
government jobs, and if they already have them, should be identified and
fired.
[126]
Since 2005 the
Ni'matullāhī
order—Iran's largest Sufi order—have come under increasing state
pressure. Three of their houses of worship have been demolished.
Officials accused the Sufis of not having building permits and of
narcotics possession—charges the Sufis reject.
[126]
The government of
Iran
is considering an outright ban on Sufism, according to the 2009 Annual
Report of the United States Commission on International Religious
Freedom.
[127] It also reports:
In February 2009, at least 40 Sufis in
Isfahan were arrested after protesting the destruction of a Sufi place of worship; all were released within days.
In January, Jamshid Lak, a Gonabadi Dervish from the Nematollahi Sufi
order was flogged 74 times after being convicted in 2006 of slander
following his public allegation of ill-treatment by a Ministry of
Intelligence official.
In late December 2008, after the closure of a Sufi place of worship,
authorities arrested without charge at least six members of the Gonabadi
Dervishes on
Kish Island and confiscated their books and computer equipment; their status is unknown.
In November 2008, Amir Ali Mohammad Labaf was sentenced to a
five-year prison term, 74 lashes, and internal exile to the southeastern
town of
Babak for spreading lies, based on his membership in the Nematollahi Gonabadi Sufi order.
In October, at least seven Sufi Muslims in Isfahan, and five others in
Karaj, were arrested because of their affiliation with the Nematollahi Gonabadi Sufi order; they remain in detention.
In November 2007, clashes in the western city of
Borujerd
between security forces and followers of a mystic Sufi order resulted
in dozens of injuries and the arrests of approximately 180 Sufi Muslims.
The clashes occurred after authorities began bulldozing a Sufi
monastery. It is unclear how many remain in detention or if any charges
have been brought against those arrested. During the past year, there
were numerous reports of Shi'a clerics and prayer leaders, particularly
in
Qom, denouncing Sufism and the activities of Sufi Muslims in the country in both sermons and public statements.
[127]
Not all Sufi's in Iran have been subject to government pressure.
Sunni dervish orders—such as the Qhaderi dervishes—in the
Sunni-populated parts of the country are thought by some to be seen as
allies of the government against Al-Qaeda.
[126]
Islam and Sufism
Sufism and Islamic law
Scholars and adherents of Sufism sometimes describe Sufism in terms of a threefold approach to God as explained by a tradition (
hadîth) attributed to Muhammad
[citation needed],
"The Canon is my word, the order is my deed, and the truth is my interior state".[citation needed] Sufis believe the
sharia (exoteric "canon"),
tariqa (esoteric "order") and
haqiqa ("truth") are mutually interdependent.
[128]
The
tariqa, the 'path' on which the mystics walk, has been defined as
[weasel words] 'the path which comes out of the
sharia, for the main road is called
branch, the path,
tariq.'
[clarification needed]
No mystical experience can be realized if the binding injunctions of
the sharia are not followed faithfully first. The tariqa however, is
narrower and more difficult to walk.
It leads the adept, called
salik or "wayfarer", in his
sulûk or "road" through different stations (
maqâmât) until he reaches his goal, the perfect
tawhîd, the existential confession that God is One.
[129]
Shaykh al-Akbar Muhiuddeen Ibn Arabi mentions, "When we see someone in
this Community who claims to be able to guide others to God, but is
remiss in but one rule of the Sacred Law – even if he manifests miracles
that stagger the mind – asserting that his shortcoming is a special
dispensation for him, we do not even turn to look at him, for such a
person is not a sheikh, nor is he speaking the truth, for no one is
entrusted with the secrets of God Most High save one in whom the
ordinances of the Sacred Law are preserved. (Jami' karamat al-awliya')".
[130]
The
Amman Message, a detailed statement issued by 200 leading Islamic scholars in 2005 in
Amman, and adopted by the Islamic world's political and temporal leaderships at the
Organisation of the Islamic Conference
summit at Mecca in December 2005, and by six other international
Islamic scholarly assemblies including the International Islamic Fiqh
Academy of Jeddah, in July 2006, specifically recognized the validity of
Sufism as a part of Islam—however the definition of Sufism can vary
drastically between different traditions (what may be intended is simple
tazkiah as opposed to the various manifestations of Sufism around the Islamic world).
[131]
Traditional Islamic thought and Sufism
The literature of Sufism emphasizes highly subjective matters that
resist outside observation, such as the subtle states of the heart.
Often these resist direct reference or description, with the consequence
that the authors of various Sufi treatises took recourse to allegorical
language. For instance, much Sufi poetry refers to intoxication, which
Islam expressly forbids. This usage of indirect language and the
existence of interpretations by people who had no training in Islam or
Sufism led to doubts being cast over the validity of Sufism as a part of
Islam. Also, some groups emerged that considered themselves above the
Sharia
and discussed Sufism as a method of bypassing the rules of Islam in
order to attain salvation directly. This was disapproved of by
traditional scholars.
For these and other reasons, the relationship between traditional
Islamic scholars and Sufism is complex and a range of scholarly opinion
on Sufism in Islam has been the norm. Some scholars, such as
Al-Ghazali, helped its propagation while other scholars opposed it.
W. Chittick explains the position of Sufism and Sufis this way:
In short, Muslim scholars who focused their
energies on understanding the normative guidelines for the body came to
be known as jurists, and those who held that the most important task was
to train the mind in achieving correct understanding came to be divided
into three main schools of thought: theology, philosophy, and Sufism.
This leaves us with the third domain of human existence, the spirit.
Most Muslims who devoted their major efforts to developing the spiritual
dimensions of the human person came to be known as Sufis.
Traditional and Neo-Sufi groups
The traditional Sufi orders, which are in majority, emphasize the
role of Sufism as a spiritual discipline within Islam. Therefore, the
Sharia (traditional Islamic law) and the
Sunnah
are seen as crucial for any Sufi aspirant. One proof traditional orders
assert is that almost all the famous Sufi masters of the past
Caliphates were experts in
Sharia and were renowned as people with great Iman (faith) and excellent practice. Many were also
Qadis
(Sharia law judges) in courts. They held that Sufism was never distinct
from Islam and to fully comprehend and practice Sufism one must be an
observant Muslim.
"Neo-Sufism" and "universal Sufism" are terms used to denote forms of
Sufism that do not require adherence to Shariah, or a Muslim faith. The
terms are not always accepted by those it is applied to. The
Universal Sufism movement was founded by
Inayat Khan, teaches the essential unity of all faiths, and accepts members of all creeds.
Sufism Reoriented is an offshoot of Khan's Western Sufism influenced by the
syncretistic teacher
Meher Baba. The
Golden Sufi Center exists in
England,
Switzerland and the
United States. It was founded by
Llewellyn Vaughan-Lee to continue the work of his teacher
Irina Tweedie, herself a disciple of the
Hindu Naqshbandi Sufi
Bhai Sahib. The Afghan-Scottish teacher
Idries Shah has been described as a neo-Sufi by the
Gurdjieffian James Moore.
[132] Other Western Sufi organisations include the Sufi Foundation of America and the
International Association of Sufism.
Western Sufi practice may differ from traditional forms, for instance
having mixed-gender meetings and less emphasis on the Qur'an.
Prominent Sufis
Geometric arabesque tiling on the underside of the dome of
Hafiz's tomb in
Shiraz.
Abul Hasan al-Shadhili
Abul Hasan al-Shadhili (died 1258 CE), the founder of the
Shadhiliyya Sufi order, introduced
dhikr jahri (The method of remembering Allah through loud means). Sufi orders generally preach to deny oneself and to destroy the ego-self
(nafs)
and its worldly desires. This is sometimes characterized as the "Order
of Patience-Tariqus Sabr". In contrast, Imam Shadhili taught that his
followers need not abstain from what Islam has not forbidden, but to be
grateful for what God has bestowed upon them.
[133]
This notion, known as the "Order of Gratitude-Tariqush Shukr", was
espoused by Imam Shadhili. Imam Shadhili gave eighteen valuable
hizbs (litanies) to his followers out of which the notable
Hizbul Bahr is recited worldwide even today.
Bayazid Bastami
Bayazid Bastami
(died 874 CE) is considered to be "of the six bright stars in the
firmament of the Prophet", and a link in the Golden Chain of the
Naqshbandi
Tariqah. He is regarded as the first mystic to openly speak of the
annihilation (fanā') of the base self in the Divine, whereby the mystic
becomes fully absorbed to the point of becoming unaware of himself or
the objects around him. Every existing thing seems to vanish, and he
feels free of every barrier that could stand in the way of his viewing
the Remembered One. In one of these states, Bastami cried out: "Praise
to Me, for My greatest Glory!" His belief in the unity of all religions
became apparent when asked the question: "How does Islam view other
religions?" His reply was "All are vehicles and a path to God's Divine
Presence".
Ibn Arabi
Muhyiddin Muhammad b. 'Ali
Ibn 'Arabi
(or Ibn al-'Arabi) AH 561- AH 638 (July 28, 1165 – November 10, 1240)
is considered to be one of the most important Sufi masters, although he
never founded any order (
tariqa). His writings, especially
al-Futuhat al-Makkiyya and Fusus al-hikam, have been studied within all
the Sufi orders as the clearest expression of
tawhid (Divine Unity), though because of their
recondite nature they were often only given to initiates. Later those who followed his teaching became known as the school of
wahdat al-wujud
(the Oneness of Being). He himself considered his writings to have been
divinely inspired. As he expressed the Way to one of his close
disciples, his legacy is that 'you should never ever abandon your
servanthood ('
ubudiyya), and that there may never be in your soul a longing for any existing thing'.
[134]
Junayd Baghdadi
Junayd Baghdadi
(830-910 CE) was one of the great early Sufis, and is a central figure
in the golden chain of many Sufi orders. He laid the groundwork for
sober mysticism in contrast to that of God-intoxicated Sufis like
al-Hallaj, Bayazid Bastami and Abusaeid Abolkheir. During the trial of
al-Hallaj, his former disciple, the Caliph of the time demanded his
fatwa. In response, he issued this fatwa: "From the outward appearance
he is to die and we judge according to the outward appearance and God
knows better". He is referred to by Sufis as Sayyid-ut Taifa, i.e. the
leader of the group. He lived and died in the city of Baghdad.
Mansur al-Hallaj
Mansur al-Hallaj
(died 922 CE) is renowned for his claim "Ana-l-Haqq" (I am The Truth).
His refusal to recant this utterance, which was regarded as
apostasy,
led to a long trial. He was imprisoned for 11 years in a Baghdad
prison, before being tortured and publicly dismembered on March 26, 922.
He is still revered by Sufis for his willingness to embrace torture and
death rather than recant. It is said that during his prayers, he would
say "O Lord! You are the guide of those who are passing through the
Valley of Bewilderment. If I am a heretic, enlarge my heresy".
[135]
Reception
Sufism did not always enjoy wide acceptance. Especially in its early stages, Muslim
Ulema looked down on Sufi practices as a form of extremism in religion.
[136]
Perception outside Islam
A choreographed Sufi performance on Friday at Sudan.
Sufi mysticism has long exercised a fascination upon the Western world, and especially its orientalist scholars.
[137] Figures like
Rumi have become well known in the United States, where Sufism is perceived as a peaceful and apolitical form of Islam.
[137]
The
Islamic Institute in Mannheim, Germany, which works towards the integration of
Europe
and Muslims, sees Sufism as particularly suited for interreligious
dialogue and intercultural harmonisation in democratic and pluralist
societies; it has described Sufism as a symbol of tolerance and
humanism—nondogmatic, flexible and non-violent.
[138]
Influence of Sufism on Judaism
Although the monotheism of Sufism (and of Islam altogether) is a
variation of the Jewish tradition, and the whole concept of shari'ah is
simply an islamization of the Jewish notion of halacha (which preceded
it by 1,000 years), there is also evidence that the influence moved in
the opposite direction as well—that Sufism did also influence the
development of some schools of Jewish philosophy and ethics. A great
influence was exercised by Sufism upon the ethical writings of Jews in
the
Middle Ages[citation needed]. In the first writing of this kind, we see "Kitab al-Hidayah ila Fara'iḍ al-Ḳulub",
Duties of the Heart, of
Bahya ibn Paquda. This book was translated by
Judah ibn Tibbon into
Hebrew under the title "Ḥovot ha-Levavot".
[139]
The precepts prescribed by the
Torah number 613 only; those dictated by the intellect are innumerable.
This was precisely the argument used by the Sufis against their adversaries, the
Ulamas.
The arrangement of the book seems to have been inspired by Sufism. Its
ten sections correspond to the ten stages through which the Sufi had to
pass in order to attain that true and passionate love of God which is
the aim and goal of all ethical self-discipline. A considerable amount
of Sufi ideas entered the Jewish mainstream
[citation needed] through Bahya ibn Paquda's work, which remains one of the most popular ethical treatises in Judaism
[citation needed].
It is noteworthy that in the ethical writings of the Sufis
Al-Kusajri and
Al-Harawi[disambiguation needed]
there are sections which treat of the same subjects as those treated in
the "Ḥovot ha-Lebabot" and which bear the same titles: e.g., "Bab
al-Tawakkul"; "Bab al-Taubah"; "Bab al-Muḥasabah"; "Bab al-Tawaḍu'";
"Bab al-Zuhd". In the ninth gate, Baḥya directly quotes sayings of the
Sufis, whom he calls
Perushim. However, the author of the
Ḥovot ha-Levavot
did not go so far as to approve of the asceticism of the Sufis,
although he showed a marked predilection for their ethical principles.
The Jewish writer Abraham bar Ḥiyya teaches the asceticism of the
Sufis. His distinction with regard to the observance of Jewish law by
various classes of men is essentially a Sufic theory. According to it
there are four principal degrees of human perfection or sanctity;
namely:
- 1. of "Shari'ah", i.e., of strict obedience to all ritual laws of Islam,
such as prayer, fasting, pilgrimage, almsgiving, ablution, etc., which
is the lowest degree of worship, and is attainable by all
- 2. of Ṭariqah, which is accessible only to a higher class of
men who, while strictly adhering to the outward or ceremonial
injunctions of religion, rise to an inward perception of mental power
and virtue necessary for the nearer approach to the Divinity
- 3. of "Ḥaḳikah", the degree attained by those who, through
continuous contemplation and inward devotion, have risen to the true
perception of the nature of the visible and invisible; who, in fact,
have recognized the Godhead, and through this knowledge have succeeded
in establishing an ecstatic relation to it; and
- 4. of the "Ma'arifah", in which state man communicates directly with the Deity.
Abraham ben Moses ben Maimon, the son of the Jewish philosopher
Maimonides,
believed that Sufi practices and doctrines continue the tradition of
the Biblical prophets. See Sefer HaMaspik, "HaPrishut", Chapter 11
("Ha-ma’avak") s.v. hitbonen eifo bi-masoret mufla’ah zu, citing the
Talmudic explanation of Jeremiah 13:27 in Chagigah 5b; in Rabbi Yaakov
Wincelberg’s translation, "The Way of Serving God" (Feldheim), p. 429
and above, p. 427. Also see ibid., Chapter 10 ("Ikkuvim"), s.v. va-halo
yode’a atah; in "The Way of Serving God", p. 371. There are other such
references in Rabbi Abraham’s writings, as well.> He introduced into
the Jewish prayer such practices as reciting God's names (
dhikr)
[citation needed].
Abraham Maimuni's principal work is originally composed in
Judeo-Arabic and entitled "כתאב כפיא אלעאבדין"
Kitāb Kifāyah al-'Ābidīn
("A Comprehensive Guide for the Servants of God"). From the extant
surviving portion it is conjectured that Maimuni's treatise was three
times as long as his father's Guide for the Perplexed. In the book,
Maimuni evidences a great appreciation for, and affinity to, Sufism.
Followers of his path continued to foster a Jewish-Sufi form of pietism
for at least a century, and he is rightly considered the founder of this
pietistic school, which was centered in
Egypt.
The followers of this path, which they called, interchangeably,
Hasidism (not to confuse with the latter Jewish Hasidic movement) or
Sufism (Tasawwuf), practiced spiritual retreats, solitude, fasting and
sleep deprivation. The Jewish Sufis maintained their own
brotherhood, guided by a religious leader—like a Sufi
sheikh.
[140]
Abraham Maimuni's two sons, Obadyah and David, continued to lead this Jewish-Sufi brotherhood. Obadyah Maimonides wrote
Al-Mawala Al Hawdiyya
("The Treatise of the Pool")—an ethico-mystical manual based on the
typically Sufi comparison of the heart to a pool that must be cleansed
before it can experience the Divine.
The Maimonidean legacy extended right through to the 15th century
with the 5th generation of Maimonidean Sufis, David ben Joshua
Maimonides, who wrote
Al-Murshid ila al-Tafarrud (The Guide to Detachment), which includes numerous extracts of
Suhrawardi[disambiguation needed]'s
Kalimat at-Tasawwuf.
[citation needed]
Popular culture
Films
In
The Jewel of the Nile (1985), the eponymous Jewel is a Sufi holy man.
In
Hideous Kinky (1998), Julia (
Kate Winslet) travels to
Morocco to explore Sufism and a journey to self-discovery.
In
Monsieur Ibrahim (2003),
Omar Sharif's character professes to be a Muslim in the Sufi tradition.
Bab'Aziz (2005), a film by
Tunisian director
Nacer Khemir, draws heavily on the Sufi tradition, containing quotes from Sufi poets such as
Rumi and depicting an ecstatic Sufi dance.
Music
Friday evening ceremony at Dargah Salim Chisti, India.
Abida Parveen, a Pakistani Sufi singer is one of the foremost exponents of Sufi music, together with
Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan are considered the finest Sufi vocalists of the modern era.
Sanam Marvi another Pakistani singer has recently gained recognition for her Sufi vocal performances.
A. R. Rahman, the Oscar-winning Indian musician, has several compositions which draw inspiration from the Sufi genre; examples are the
filmi qawwalis Khwaja Mere Khwaja in the film
Jodhaa Akbar,
Arziyan in the film
Delhi 6 and
Kun Faya Kun in the film
Rockstar.
Bengali singer
Lalan Fakir and Bangladesh's national poet
Kazi Nazrul Islam scored several Sufi songs.
Junoon, a band from
Pakistan, created the genre of
Sufi rock by combining elements of modern
hard rock and traditional folk music with Sufi poetry.
In 2005,
Rabbi Shergill released a Sufi rock song called "
Bulla Ki Jaana", which became a chart-topper in India and Pakistan.
[141][142]
Madonna, on her 1994 record
Bedtime Stories, sings a song called "
Bedtime Story"
that discusses achieving a high unconsciousness level. The video for
the song shows an ecstatic Sufi ritual with many dervishes dancing,
Arabic calligraphy and some other Sufi elements. In her 1998 song
"Bittersweet", she recites Rumi's poem by the same name. In her 2001
Drowned World Tour, Madonna sang the song "Secret" showing rituals from
many religions, including a Sufi dance.
Singer/songwriter
Loreena McKennitt's record
The Mask and Mirror (1994) has a song called "The Mystic's Dream" that is influenced by Sufi music and poetry. The band
mewithoutYou has made references to Sufi parables, including the name of their album
It's All Crazy! It's All False! It's All a Dream! It's Alright (2009).
Tori Amos makes a reference to Sufis in her song "Cruel".
Mercan Dede is a Turkish composer who incorporates Sufism into his music and performances.
Literature
The Persian poet
Rumi
has become one of the most widely read poets in the United States,
thanks largely to the interpretative translations published by
Coleman Barks.
[143] Elif Safak's novel
The Forty Rules of Love tells the story of Rumi becoming a disciple of the Sufi dervish
Shams Tabrizi.
Modern/contemporary Sufi scholars
Arabian Peninsula
Levant and Africa
Western Europe
Eastern Europe
North America
South Asia
Eastern and Central Asia
Photo gallery
